Sayaka Nakamura

Objectives To examine how relationships between physicians, pharmacists and patients associate with generic drug (GE) utilisation in Japan’s healthcare system. Design Observational study using longitudinal medical claims from April 2015 to March 2021. Setting Pharmacies across Japan serving beneficiaries of the National Health Insurance Association. Participants 69 395 pharmacies, resulting in 322 097 pharmacy-year observations. Main outcome measures Quantity share of GEs dispensed by pharmacies. Results Higher hospital prescription concentration was consistently associated with increased GE usage (1.1–2.3 percentage points higher for moderate to very high concentrations compared with low). The relationship between patient prescription concentration and GE usage varied, showing a positive association (0.3–0.6 percentage points higher) overall, but negative in settings with low hospital concentration. Smaller pharmacies exhibited a stronger positive association between hospital concentration and GE usage, while larger pharmacies and those in less urbanised areas showed a stronger positive association between patient concentration and GE usage. Conclusions This study reveals that pharmacy-stakeholder relationships significantly influence GE utilisation in Japan’s healthcare system. Our findings demonstrate that hospital-pharmacy relationships consistently drive generic usage, while patient-pharmacy relationships show contextual effectiveness. By measuring these relationships through concentration rates, we provide evidence that stakeholder interactions may affect medication dispensing decisions. These findings suggest that policies promoting GEs may benefit from considering the specific characteristics of pharmacies and their existing relationships with hospitals and patients. These insights can inform more effective policy design for GE promotion across different healthcare contexts.

Importance Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a major public health issue, affecting 850 million people worldwide. Although previous studies have shown the association between socioeconomic status and CKD, little is known about whether this association exists in countries such as Japan where universal health coverage has been mostly achieved. Objective To identify any association of income-based disparity with development of impaired kidney function among the working population of Japan. Design, Setting, and Participants This was a nationwide retrospective cohort study of adults aged 34 to 74 years who were enrolled in the Japan Health Insurance Association insurance program, which covers approximately 40% of the working-age population (30 million enrollees) in Japan. Participants whose estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) had been measured at least twice from 2015 to 2022 were included in the analysis, which was conducted from September 1, 2021, to March 31, 2023. Exposure Individual income levels (deciles) in the fiscal year 2015. Main Outcomes and Measures Odds ratios were calculated for rapid CKD progression (defined as an annual eGFR decline of more than 5 mL/min/1.73 m²), and hazard ratios, for the initiation of kidney replacement therapy (dialysis or kidney transplant) by income level deciles in the fiscal year 2015. Results The study population totaled 5 591 060 individuals (mean [SD] age, 49.2 [9.3] years) of whom 33.4% were female. After adjusting for potential confounders, the lowest income decile (lowest 10th percentile) demonstrated a greater risk of rapid CKD progression (adjusted odds ratio, 1.70; 95% CI, 1.67-1.73) and a greater risk of kidney replacement therapy initiation (adjusted hazard ratio, 1.65; 95% CI, 1.47-1.86) compared with the highest income decile (top 10th percentile). A negative monotonic association was more pronounced among males and individuals without diabetes and was observed in individuals with early (CKD stage 1-2) and advanced (CKD stage 3-5) disease. Conclusions and Relevance The findings of this retrospective cohort study suggest that, even in countries with universal health coverage, there may be a large income-based disparity in the risk of rapid CKD progression and initiation of kidney replacement therapy. These findings highlight the importance of adapting CKD prevention and management strategies according to an individual’s socioeconomic status, even when basic health care services are financially guaranteed.