小松 太郎

This article examines whether and to what extent educational reforms in a post-conflict society conform to “global (regional) standards,” and explores the meaning of inconsistencies observed in the process of global reform transfer. Among the nations of the world, nowhere is the influence of external forces on educational reforms more evident than in post-conflict nations under close international supervision. A case study of post-conflict Bosnia and Herzegovina revealed that not only policies but also national legislation conformed to European democratic norms, while the externally-induced and somewhat contradictory reforms of centralization and decentralization did not materialize in practice. Ultimately, policy–practice gaps and changeability of global reform models may be expected since they leave room for strategic interactions between national and international actors based on the pragmatic considerations of both parties to achieve their own mandates and purposes.

ボスニア・ヘェルツェゴビナ国は，民族共存の課題に長く取り組んできた。中でも市民教育は，民族共存を進める上で重要な政策ツールであった。本論文では，紛争前後の市民教育を比較し，それぞれが民族共存を目的に如何に形成され実施されたか検討する。分析にあたっては多文化主義に関する理論を用いて，紛争前社会主義時代の市民教育と紛争後民主制移行期の市民教育アプローチが大きく異なることを説明している。アプローチの選択は，当該時代のイデオロギー，社会・政治環境に影響を受けており，また，それぞれのアプローチは，平和的な民族共存の実現において独自の限界を有する。両者の異なる点として，紛争前の市民教育が抽象的なスローガンと外敵の脅威を利用し国内の統一を図ろうとしたのに対し，紛争後の市民教育は具体的な社会・市民性原則を教えることに力点を置いている。前者が，民族主義の台頭を防ぐことが出来なかった一方，後者も，生徒が学んだ原則を多文化環境で確認，共有する機会を伴わない限り，平和的民族共存を実現することは困難であると考えられる。Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) has long dealt with the challenge of ethnic coexistence. In particular, civic education has been an important policy tool to promote coexistence. This study compares and contrasts the nation's civic education taught in schools during the pre-conflict and post-conflict periods, and illustrates how civic education has been conceptualized and practiced to tackle the issue of coexistence. Using the lens of multiculturalism as an analytical tool, the study shows that civic education subjects during the pre-conflict socialist and post-conflict democratization period adopted very different approaches. The choice of a particular approach was affected by the dominant ideologies and socio-political environment of each respective era, and each approach had its own limitations for realizing peaceful ethnic coexistence. The study explains that, whilepre-war civic education stressed unity between ethnic groups under vague socialist slogans and the prospect of external threat, the new democratic civic education focuses on the teaching of concrete social and citizenship principles. While the pre-conflict socialists' attempts to unite citizens appeared ineffective when faced with the rise of nationalism, the present-day civic education may also fail to realize peaceful coexistence if it does not include opportunities for students to apply the principles learned in a multicultural environment and understand that these principles are shared across diverse groups.

Through devolution reforms, district-level education managers in the developing world are working within a new accountability environment. This research examined district education officers' views regarding the role of education as it relates to tradition, gender and religion in post-devolution Pakistan, in order to gain insights into local education managers' accountability contexts in a conservative and educationally underdeveloped society. The data was collected through semi-structured interviews with twelve district education officers in the North-West Frontier Province (presently called Khyber Pakhtunkhwa). It was found that the officers generally viewed the function of public schools as an agent of modernization, while acknowledging that schools should also transmit traditional values. The former perspective comes from their accountability to their employers and their own backgrounds, while the latter suggests they are responding to the needs of local constituents. They were also dealing with their accountability to local politicians and provincial bureaucracies. These multi-accountability contexts may pose a considerable challenge to local education managers, but may be effectively managed by forging a network of key stakeholders.

Symposium (July 2007) Citizenship Education in Global Perspective

11 years passed since Bosnia and Herzegovina (hereafter BiH) experienced a disastrous war fought along the ethnic lines. With the passage of time and aspiration to join EU for a better future, there started some educational attempts in BiH to promote the spirit of coexistence among children and young people. The author discusses the potentials as well as shortcomings of such initiatives based on a recent field visit. There are two initiatives this paper focuses on: formal civics education and non-formal education promoting inter-ethnic cohesion. These two types of education are different in their aims and modes of operation. Civics education is conducted at schools (often divided according to ethnicity), and aims to instill in learners' minds respect for democratic principles such as human rights, equality and tolerance, while non-formal education is conducted by Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) inviting children of different ethnicities, and aims to create trust relationship among them through interactive games and sports. The author found from a sample survey in the Tuzla canton that there seemed correlation between civic education and attitudes of children towards coexistence, though few children were offering concrete civic principles as keys to achieving coexistence. Classroom observation reveals that civic education utilizes untraditional and participatory approach in classroom teaching, but students seem less receptive when dealing with the question of ethnic relationship. Meanwhile, a non-formal education conducted by a local NGO deliberately avoids dealing with the question of ethnicity in their activities, much like in the period of socialist Yugoslavia, and promotes a sense of "sameness" among children. This approach may be effective in areas where ethnic consciousness is not acute, but may not be in other areas. The research findings suggest that civics education needs further improvement in delivering its essence, while non-formal education requires flexibility in adopting an approach according to the specificity of region where they operate. Considering that the schools are often perceived to be symbols as well as means of coexistence and ethnic divide, education should be a focus of post-war reconstruction effort. Civics education at schools and non-formal education are complimentary: civics education is a backbone of building a democratic society while non-formal education facilitates interaction between different ethnic groups, both of which are important in forming human and social capital in promoting peace and development.