Kiyokazu Okita

Ka’s relationships with the Gopīs of Vraja, described in texts such as the Bhāgavata Purāṇa were controversial in the precolonial period. This paper first summarizes the teachings of Caitanya (1486–1534), the inaugurator of Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇavism who promoted the Purāṇa. The paper then discusses Rūpa’s Ujjvala-nīlamaṇi (sixteenth century) where he promotes Ka’s paramourship in relation to the Gopīs. This is followed by an analysis of both Jīva’s (sixteenth century) view on Ka’s matrimony with the Gopīs and the refutation of Jīva’s view in the Svakīyātvanirāsavicāra written by Viśvanātha Cakravartī (seventeenth century). By tracing the process of “transcreation” concerning Ka narratives, the paper demonstrates the complexity of this controversy, which continues even to the present day. In addition, the paper argues that the production of commentaries provided an intellectual outlet for Hindu theologians in early modern South Asia to express their own perspectives on controversial topics while remaining faithful within their tradition.