Hanako Okada

Ethnographic perspectives on discourse have found a growing place in second language research, especially as the “social turn” called for a more social, contextual, holistic, and ecological orientation rather than a predominantly cognitive one. When combined appropriately, the social and contextual factors drawn from ethnography and linguistic data from discourse analysis supplement each other and allow researchers to explore second language learning in situ. However, as both ethnography and discourse analysis are umbrella terms that refer to a wide range of contrasting perspectives and approaches, these terms can be elusive and loosely used. This chapter, therefore, begins by outlining their history and essential characteristics. Second, their relationship is discussed, addressing their tensions and how they may be compatibly combined into hybrid approaches. Third, it locates ethnographic perspectives on discourse in the historical contexts of the field of second language acquisition. Fourth, two sample studies showcasing the hybrid approaches in action are given. Fifth and finally, the implications of ethnographic perspectives on discourse and second language research and their future directions are addressed.

Sociocognitive theory views learning, including second language acquisition, as the progressive alignment of individuals vis-à-vis their ecosocial environments. In this article we first update sociocognitive theory in light of recent evolutionary/ecological research on learning/teaching: (a) Humans are evolutionarily adapted to adapt to myriad environments, placing a premium on adaptive learning, (b) human adaptation is effected substantially through niche construction—engineering environments to make them more adaptive, and then transmitting the results culturally, placing a premium on adaptive teaching, (c) both human learning and teaching are innate/instinctive, and co-evolved, and (d) there are many kinds of ‘teachers’ in the world. Second, we briefly review 3 approaches to second language acquisition/teaching (SLA/T) vis-à-vis sociocognitive theory: van Lier's ecological-semiotic approach, Schumann's interactional instinct, and conversation analysis. Third, we apply our theoretical perspective exploratorily to videotaped data of a Japanese learner/user of English as a lingua franca who is baking pastries with a Finnish friend. Our analysis includes 5 widely studied ‘units of participation’: activity types, routines, co-constructed tellings, repetition, and assessments. Analysis suggests that these constitute powerful environmental support structures yielding rich learning opportunities for SLA/T in moment-to-moment interaction. Fourth and finally, we discuss our results vis-à-vis our theoretical approach. We conclude by suggesting how our expanded view of teaching/learning might broaden SLA/T's ‘pedagogical imagination.’.

This article argues for the crucial role of alignment in second language acquisition, as conceptualized from a broadly sociocognitive perspective. By alignment, we mean the complex processes through which human beings effect coordinated interaction, both with other human beings and (usually human-engineered) environments, situations, tools, and affordances. The article begins by summarizing what we mean by a sociocognitive approach to second language acquisition. We then develop the notion of alignment, first in terms of general learning/activity and next in relation to second language (L2) learning. Following that, we provide an extended example of alignment-in-action, focusing on the coordinated activities of a Japanese junior high school student and her tutor as they study English in their sociocognitively constructed world. Next, we speculate on possible uses of the alignment concept in L2 research and teaching, and finally we conclude by restating our claim - that alignment is a necessary and crucial requirement for L2 development. © 2007 The Modern Language Journal.